Ethereum how many blocks until confirmation liqui

The ability for anyone to run their own node is absolutely essential to maintaining the decentralization of the Ethereum network. More on running your own node Misconception: "The Merge failed to reduced gas fees. The Merge was a change of consensus mechanism, not an expansion of network capacity, and was never intended to lower gas fees.

More Gas fees are a product of network demand relative to the capacity of the network. The Merge deprecated the use of proof-of-work, transitioning to proof-of-stake for consensus, but did not significantly change any parameters that directly influence network capacity or throughput. With a rollup-centric roadmap , efforts are being focused on scaling user activity at layer 2 , while enabling layer 1 Mainnet as a secure decentralized settlement layer optimized for rollup data storage to help make rollup transactions exponentially cheaper.

The transition to proof-of-stake is a critical precursor to realizing this. More on gas and fees. Misconception: "Transactions were accelerated substantially by The Merge. Though some slight changes exist, transaction speed is mostly the same on layer 1 now as it was before The Merge.

More A transaction's "speed" can be measured in a few ways, including time to be included in a block and time to finalization. Both of these changes slightly, but not in a way that users will notice. Under proof-of-stake, slots occur precisely every 12 seconds, each of which is an opportunity for a validator to publish a block.

Most slots have blocks, but not necessarily all i. This was a fairly insignificant change and is unlikely to be noticed by users. Proof-of-stake introduced the transaction finality concept that did not previously exist. In proof-of-work, the ability to reverse a block gets exponentially more difficult with every passing block mined on top of a transaction, but it never quite reaches zero.

Under proof-of-stake, blocks are bundled into epochs 6. When an epoch ends, validators vote on whether to consider the epoch 'justified'. If validators agree to justify the epoch, it gets finalized in the next epoch. Undoing finalized transactions is economically unviable as it would require obtaining and burning over one-third of the total staked ETH.

Misconception: "The Merge enabled staking withdrawals. Staking withdrawals are not yet enabled with The Merge. The following Shanghai upgrade will enable staking withdrawals. More Staked ETH and staking rewards continue to be locked without the ability to withdraw. Withdrawals are planned for the upcoming Shanghai upgrade. Misconception: "Validators will not receive any liquid ETH rewards til the Shanghai upgrade when withdrawals are enabled.

The protocol issues ETH as a reward to validators for contributing to consensus. The consensus layer accounts for the newly issued ETH, where a validator has a unique address that holds its staked ETH and protocol rewards. This ETH is locked until Shanghai. ETH on the execution layer is accounted for separately from the consensus layer. When users execute transactions on Ethereum Mainnet, ETH must be paid to cover the gas, including a tip to the validator. This ETH is already on the execution layer, is NOT being newly issued by the protocol, and is available to the validator immediately given a proper fee recipient address is provided to the client software.

Misconception: "When withdrawals are enabled, stakers will all exit at once. Validator exits are rate limited for security reasons. More After the Shanghai upgrade enables withdrawals, all validators will be incentivized to withdraw their staking balance above 32 ETH, as these funds do not add to yield and are otherwise locked.

Depending on the APR determined by total ETH staked , they may be incentivized to exit their validator s to reclaim their entire balance or potentially stake even more using their rewards to earn more yield. Every validator is placed on one beacon committee per epoch, and each beacon committee is randomly assigned to a particular slot and required to attest to their view of the chain head block during their assigned slot.

By dividing validators into beacon committees, the network cuts down on messaging requirements, allowing for individual attestations to be aggregated in parallel and gossiped at the committee level. In fact, each slot has multiple beacon committees of validators, all attesting to the same information in that particular slot, so the number of aggregated attestations per slot will align with the number of committees per slot in an idealized example.

Each beacon committee makes a single attestation per epoch before being disbanded and the process restarting anew in the next epoch. A small set of validators are also chosen at random to join sync committees which are different from the aforementioned beacon committees , which pay additional rewards to validators and help light clients sync up and determine the head of the chain.

Sync committees are particularly lucrative as participating validators receive a reward for each slot, and the selection lasts for epochs, or 8, slots before a new committee is selected. The Beacon Chain employs a proof-of-stake consensus protocol named Gasper, which the Ethereum team designed internally. By doing so, Gasper combines the low overhead benefits that allow for a high number of participants to support decentralization seen in longest chain systems with the finality benefits of a pBFT-inspired system.

Alternative approaches favoring safety like Tendermint will not allow for forks safety , but they cease block production and halt when finality thresholds are not met. Gasper uses a system of checkpoint attestations of prior blocks, which requires a supermajority of attestation votes and increases the cost of reorganizing the blockchain prior to such checkpoints. Every epoch has one checkpoint, and that checkpoint is a hash identifying the latest block at the start of that epoch3. Validators attest to their view of two checkpoints every epoch, and the validator also runs the LMD GHOST fork-choice rule to attest to their view of the chain head block.

The two checkpoint blocks are known as a source and a target, where the source is the earlier of the two checkpoint blocks. If more than two-thirds of the total validator stake vote to link two adjacent checkpoint blocks, then there is a supermajority link between these checkpoints, and they both achieve an increased level of security.

Reversing a finalized block would require malicious action by two-thirds of the total validator stake, and resultantly, the protocol guarantees they would be slashed at least one-third of the total network stake4. This is referred to as economic finality — while a finalized Beacon Chain block can be reversed at a later date, unlike a protocol that achieves absolute finality such as Tendermint, it is impossible to do so without having a prohibitively large amount of stake slashed.

Note that the checkpoint block illustrated in the graphic represents the source checkpoint. Additionally, proof-of-stake has an asymmetric cost advantage that should disincentivize chain reorgs even more so than proof-of-work. The cost to a miner of attempting a chain reorganization and failing under proof-of-work is the electricity cost of their hashrate and the opportunity cost of coins that could have been mined on the canonical chain.

The proof-of-stake reorganization equivalent requires a malicious validator to front as much as two-thirds of the total Ethereum stake, understanding that they will be slashed at least one-third of the total network stake after reorganizing a finalized block.

Whether the impediment is from validators being offline due to a client issue or a fork caused by a consensus disagreement, the inactivity leak is designed to penalize validators that impede finality by failing to attest to the chain, and it will eventually allow for the chain s to finalize as the impeding party accrues quadratically growing penalties until a supermajority is reclaimed.

Rewards and penalties are aggregated across slots and paid to validators every epoch. Rewards issued for validating the chain are dynamic and depend on the total amount of ETH staked in the network. Specifically, the total ETH issued to validators in aggregate is proportional to the square root of the number of validators.

This mechanism incentivizes validators with larger issuance rewards when there are fewer validators participating in consensus, and it decreases the incentive as the validator set grows and attracting additional validators becomes less essential. However, the average yield from issuance would fall to about 3. Note that these numbers simply show the total issuance over the total stake or the average yield paid across all validators, but individual validators will achieve different yields based on their performance, as well as other uncontrollable factors.

The ETH issuance illustrated assumes the Beacon Chain is running optimally, validators are performing their duties perfectly, and all validators have a 32 ETH effective balance. Actual issuance will be lower than illustrated as validators do not behave optimally in practice, but data since the launch of the Beacon Chain has indicated that live validator performance is only a few percentage points below optimal.

A substantial portion of validator rewards are derived from attestations, as every validator will make one attestation during each epoch. Attesting too slowly or incorrectly will result in rewards turning into penalties. In addition, the rewards realized by individual validators will further vary as incremental rewards accrue to the randomly selected block proposers and sync committee participants. In short, this essentially means that validators with a balance below 32 ETH due to penalties for going offline or being slashed for malicious behavior will have their rewards scaled downward versus validators with a 32 ETH balance.

Bellatrix will occur on September 6th, and it gives the Beacon Chain logic to be aware that The Merge is coming, while Paris is the actual Merge itself, where the consensus mechanism is switched in real-time. The Merge will be triggered when the chain reaches a pre-specified terminal total difficulty TTD level, which is a measure of the total cumulative mining power used to build the proof-of-work chain since genesis.

Once a proof-of-work block is added to the chain that crosses the preset TTD threshold, no additional proof-of-work blocks will be produced from this point on. Upon hitting TTD, Ethereum EL clients will toggle off mining and cease their gossip-based communication about blocks, with similar responsibilities now being assumed by CL clients. The two distinct blockchains that were historically running in parallel will have merged into the Beacon Chain, and new blocks will be proposed and extend the Beacon Chain as usual, but with transaction data that was historically included in proof-of-work blocks.

Annotations by GSR. We would recommend this post to those interested in a very precise series of events. One notable challenge associated with The Merge is the sheer number of pairwise combinations between consensus and execution layer clients. Unlike Bitcoin, which has a single reference implementation in Bitcoin Core, post-Merge Ethereum nodes must run an execution client and a consensus client paired together, with the implementations chosen at the discretion of the node operator.

Further, Ethereum has multiple distinct client teams independently developing and implementing the EL and CL protocol specifications. Ignoring client implementations with less than one percent of the user base, there are four EL client implementations and four CL client implementations, according to clientdiversity.

This creates 16 distinct pairs of EL and CL client implementations that all need to interoperate seamlessly. The inactivity leak further punishes correlated failures that impede finality. Building the Beacon Chain specification and battle-testing the client implementations is no small feat, and Ethereum developers have run through a large number of tests aiming to simulate The Merge in a controlled environment.

Around 20 shadow forks, which are simply copies of the state of a network used for testing purposes, have been executed across mainnet and Goerli, allowing developers to trial The Merge through a large suite of live network conditions.

Shadow forks work by coordinating a small number of nodes to fork off the canonical chain by pulling their Merge implementation timeline ahead of the live network. Based on the Ethereum hashrate mining currently, The Merge is likely to occur on September 15th, but the expected date can be monitored in real-time here.

While The Merge is expected to be minimally disruptive to most participants of the Ethereum network, there are a few important changes to be aware of. Importantly and as discussed above, the upgrade will now require full nodes to run an EL client and a CL client. In contrast, transactions and blocks could previously be received, validated, and propagated with a single EL client.

Moving forward, both EL and CL clients will have a unique peer-to-peer p2p network. The CL client will gossip blocks, attestations, and slashings while the EL client will continue to gossip transactions, handle execution, and maintain state. The two clients will leverage the Engine API to communicate with each other, forming a full post-Merge Ethereum node in tandem. In addition, Ethereum applications are not expected to be materially affected by The Merge, but certain changes like a marginally decreased block time and the removal of proof-of-work-related opcodes like difficulty could impact a subset of smart contracts.

Moreover, net issuance may be deflationary, as gas fees burned under EIP may more than offset the new, lower issuance schedule. As a result, all new ETH issuance will be illiquid as it will accrue to validator accounts where it cannot be withdrawn or transferred until after the next upgrade. And even then, there are validator exit limits in place to prevent a simultaneous run to the exits after staked ETH becomes liquid.

All told, a successful Merge will result in many changes and positive benefits. The Surge Another major upgrade is The Surge, which refers to the set of upgrades commonly referred to as sharding that are designed to help Ethereum scale transaction throughput. For traditional databases, sharding is the process of partitioning a database horizontally to spread the load, and in earlier Ethereum roadmaps, it aimed to scale throughput on the base layer by splitting execution into 64 shard chains to support parallel computation, with each shard chain having its own validator set and state.

However, as layer two L2 scaling technologies developed, Vitalik Buterin proposed a rollup-centric scaling roadmap for Ethereum in October , simplifying the long-term Ethereum roadmap by deemphasizing scaling at the base layer and prioritizing data sharding over execution sharding. The updated roadmap aims to achieve network scalability by moving virtually all computation i.

Simply put, computation is already very cheap on L2s, and the majority of L2 transaction fees today are driven by the cost of posting the computed data back to mainnet. Currently, rollups post their state roots back to Ethereum using calldata for storage. While a full primer on rollups is beyond the scope of this piece, rollups do not need permanent data storage but only require that the data is temporarily available for a short period of time.

More precisely, they require data availability guarantees ensuring that data was made publicly available and not withheld or censored by a malicious actor. Hence, despite calldata being the cheapest data solution available today, it is not optimized for rollups or scalable enough for their data availability needs. However, instituting full Danksharding is complex, leading the community to support an intermediate upgrade offering a subset of the DS features known as Proto-Danksharding PDS; EIP to achieve meaningful scaling benefits more quickly.

This new transaction type will materially increase the amount of data available for rollups to interpret since each blob, which is roughly kB, is larger than an entire Ethereum block on average. Blobs are purely introduced for data availability purposes, and the EVM cannot access blob data, but it can only prove its existence. The full blob content is propagated separately alongside a block as a sidecar.

This segregated fee market should yield efficiencies by separating the cost of data availability from the cost of execution, allowing the individual components to be priced independently based on their respective demand i. Further, data blobs are expected to be pruned from nodes after a month or so, making them a great data solution for rollups without overburdening node operators with extreme storage requirements.

Despite PDS making progress in the DS roadmap, the name is perhaps a misnomer given each validator is still required to download every data blob to verify that they are indeed available, and actual data sharding will not occur until the introduction of DS. The PDS proposal is simply a step in the direction of the future DS implementation, and expectations are for PDS to be fully compatible with DS while increasing the current throughput of rollups by an order of magnitude.

Rollups will be required to adjust to this new transaction type, but the forward compatibility will ensure another adjustment is not required once DS is ready to be implemented. While the implementation details of DS are not set in stone, the general idea is simple to understand: DS distributes the job of checking data availability amongst validators.

To do so, DS uses a process known as data availability sampling, where it encodes shard data using erasure coding, extending the dataset in a way that mathematically guarantees the availability of the full data set as long as some fixed threshold of samples is available6. DS splits up data into blobs or shards, and every validator will be required to attest to the availability of their assigned shards of data once per epoch, splitting the load amongst them.

As long as the majority of validators honestly attest to their data being available, there will be a sufficient number of samples available, and the original data can be reconstructed. In the longer run, private random sampling is expected to allow an individual to guarantee data availability on their own without any validator trust assumptions, but this is challenging to implement and is not expected to be included initially.

DS further plans to increase the number of target shards to , with a maximum of shards per block, materially increasing the target blob storage per block from 1 MB to 16 MBs. This increase in validator requirements would be detrimental to the diversity of the network, so an important upgrade from The Splurge, known as Proposer-Builder Separation PBS , will need to be completed first.

However, many still misconstrue sharding as scaling Ethereum execution at the base layer, which is no longer the medium-term objective. The sharding roadmap prioritizes making data availability cheaper and leaning into the computational strengths of rollups to achieve scalability on L2. Many have highlighted DS as the upgrade that could invert the scalability trilemma as a highly decentralized validator set will allow for data to be sharded into smaller pieces while statistically preserving data availability guarantees, improving scalability without sacrificing security.

And in the current design, Ethereum nodes must store the state to validate blocks and ensure that the network transitions between states correctly. This growing storage requirement increases the hardware specifications to run a full node over time, which could have a centralizing effect on the validator set. The permanence of state also creates a unique scenario as a user pays a one-time gas fee to send a transaction in exchange for an ongoing cost to the network via permanent node storage requirements.

The Verge aims to alleviate the burden of state on the network by replacing the current Merkle-Patricia state tree with a Verkle Tree, a newer data structure first described in However, Verkle proofs are much more efficient in proof size compared to Merkle proofs.

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